Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen »

Contemporary sources acknowledged her beauty and influence her face was dark and of a swarthy hue, her eyes were black and powerful beyond the usual wont, her spirit divinely great, and her beauty incredible. So white were her teeth that many thought that she had pearls in place of teeth. Her voice was clear and like that of a man. Her sternness, when necessity demanded, was that of a tyrant, her clemency that of a good emperor. After seizing Egypt and much of Asia Minor, she was finally defeated and brought back to Rome in chains by the emperor Aurelian. Zenobia's story of intrigue, beauty and power has inspired many melodramatic fictions but few factual volumes of authority have been published. This book is a lively account that is up to date and authoritative and an engaging read.

Illustrations vii

Preface and Acknowledgements ix

1 Zenobia in History and Legend 1

The Historical Zenobia 2

The Family of Zenobia 4

The Status and Family of Odenathus 6

The Children of Zenobia and Odenathus 9

The Legend of Zenobia 10

Travellers to Palmyra 13

Zenobia in Literature and Art 14

2 Palmyra and Rome 17

Annexation by Rome 20

The Palmyrene Militia 24

Organization of Palmyrene Trade 27

The Caravans and their Leaders 28

Luxury Goods 30

Trade Routes 31

Palmyra, Rome and Parthia 33

The Rise of Septimius Severus 35

Changes in the Palmyrene Militia 37

The Late Severan Dynasty and the Rise of the Persians 38

The Roman Response 40

The Decline of Palmyrene Trade 42

Odenathus, Chief of the Palmyrenes 43

Shapur I, King of Kings 46

The Emperor Valerian and Odenathus 47

3 Septimius Odenathus: Restorer of the East 57

Macrianus and His Sons Seize Power 58

Odenathus, Restorer of the East 61

Literary Sources 62

Dux Romanorum 63

Corrector totius orientis? 67

The Campaign against the Persians 70

King of Kings 71

The Last Years of Odenathus 75

4 Zenobia Widowed 83

The Representation of Vaballathus as Ruler 84

Gaining the Support of the Eastern Kingdoms and Provinces 86

Relations with Rome 89

Protection of the Eastern Frontier 91

Queen and Regent 92

Queen and Court 95

5 Septimia Zenobia Augusta 101

Economic and Defence Motives in Palmyrene Expansion 103

The Roman World in 269-70 105

Arabia 106

Egypt 110

Asia Minor 116

Zenobia's Rule of the East 118

6 Aurelian and the Roman Recovery 131

The Roman Recovery of Egypt 131

Aurelian's March to Syria 133

The Battle of Immae 135

The Defeat of thePalmyrene Garrison at Daphne 138

The Battle of Emesa 138

The So-called Siege of Palmyra 140

7 Aftermath 149

The Rebellion of the Palmyrenes 152

The Revolt of Firmus in Egypt 155

The Fate of Zenobia 156

Zenobia: Rebel and Usurper, or Heroine and Patriot? 161

Glossary 165

Notes 173

Bibliography 197

Index 209