A

A

A symbol used to designate the Codex Alexandrinus.

AARON (Heb.)

A descendant of Levi and brother of Moses (Exod.6:20; Num. 26:59; 1 Chr. 6:3[MT 5:22]), a co-leaderwith Moses and their sister Miriam leading the Israelitesout of Egypt through the wilderness (Mic.6:4; Exod. 4:10-16; 7:1-25), and Israel's first highpriest and ancestor of the priestly family ofAaronite priests (Exod. 28:1-2; Num. 18:1-7).

High Priest (Exodus-Numbers and Chronicles)

Aaron and his descendants are repeatedly featuredas central figures and the predominant priests ofIsrael's cult in Exodus-Numbers and 1-2 Chronicles.Approximately 85 percent of the total number(346) of references to Aaron in the Bible are concentratedin the pentateuchal books of Exodus, Leviticus,and Numbers. There, particularly in the socalledPriestly portions of the Pentateuch, Aaronand his sons are the exalted high priests who overseeIsrael's sacrifices and cult centered in the arkand tabernacle (Exod. 27-30). The Aaronites are incharge of the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lotsfor determining Yahweh's will (Exod. 28:30; Lev.8:5-9; Num. 27:21). Aaron and his sons are the onlypriests authorized to preside at various rituals andofferings (Lev. 6-8). The actual ordination ceremonyfor Aaron and his sons is narrated in Lev. 8-9.Lev. 21 lists a series of regulations designed tomaintain the holiness of the Aaronite priesthood.Aaron is a descendant of the priestly tribe of Levi(Exod. 6:16-25), but Aaron and his sons represent aspecial clan among the Levites who alone are authorizedto come near and officiate at rituals associatedwith the tent of meeting (Num. 3:5-10).Aaron and his sons are assigned the duty of blessingthe Israelites in the form of the so-calledAaronic benediction in Num. 6:22-27. The priestlypredominance of Aaron over other Levites is emphasizedin the revolt of Korah, Dathan, andAbiram in Num. 16, the budding of Aaron's rod inNum. 17, and the classification of priestly responsibilitiesamong the Aaronites and other Levites inNum. 18.

    The postexilic book of 1-2 Chronicles reflectsan exalted view of the Aaronite priesthood similarto that found in the Priestly tradition of the Pentateuch.Aaron and his descendants make offeringsand atonement at "the most holy place" (1 Chr.6:49[34]). The Aaronite priests are "set apart" fromother Levites for the most sacred duties of templeworship in burning incense, ministering, and blessing(1 Chr. 23-24; cf. 2 Chr. 26:16-21).

Elsewhere in the Old Testament

Allusions to Aaron or Aaronite priests are very rareor absent in other sections of the OT such as theDeuteronomistic history or the prophetic books.Even the exilic book of Ezekiel, which devotes significantattention to matters of priests and templeworship, never mentions Aaron or the Aaronites.Instead, Ezekiel designates another priestly group,the Zadokites, as the true high priests who receiveassistance from the Levites (Ezek. 40:46; 44:15:48:11). 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings likewise rarelymention the Aaronite priesthood and instead focuson the Levites and the Zadokites as priests duringIsrael's monarchy (e.g., 1 Kgs. 2:27). Thus, theAaronic priesthood apparently played little role inmuch of the preexilic and exilic literature (Deuteronomistichistory, Ezekiel). However, the figure ofAaron and the Aaronite priesthood apparentlyemerged as the preeminent priestly group in theSecond Temple or postexilic period in charge ofworship and rituals in the Jerusalem temple.

Negative and Nonpriestly Portrayals

Sections of the Pentateuch that scholars often dateas earlier than the exilic Priestly traditions tend toportray Aaron in a nonpriestly role as a co-leaderwith Moses (Exod. 4:27-31; 11:10; 12:31; 16:33-34).These earlier traditions in the Pentateuch also portrayAaron negatively in opposition or rebellionagainst Moses or Yahweh (Exod. 32, the idolatry ofthe golden calf; Num. 12, the rebellion of Aaron andMiriam against Moses; Num. 20, the unfaithfulnessof Moses and Aaron in hitting the rock). The oneprophetic reference to Aaron in Mic. 6:4 lists Aaronas simply a co-leader of the Israelites in the wildernessalong with Moses and Miriam.

New Testament

Aaron's priesthood diminishes in importance inlight of the atoning significance of Jesus' death andresurrection in the NT. Acts 7:40 recalls Aaron'sidolatrous involvement with the golden calf. Thebook of Hebrews recognizes Aaron's legitimate roleas high priest (Heb. 5:4), and yet it affirms Christ asnow the greater high priest who arose "according tothe order of Melchizedek" (cf. Gen. 14:17-24) ratherthan "according to the order of Aaron" (Heb. 7:11).

Character: A Summary

The present form of the biblical text balancesAaron's prominence as leader and priest with anawareness of the potential for disobedience amongall leaders, even a high priest like Aaron (Exod.32:1-6, 25; Lev. 10:1-3; Num. 12:1-16; 20:1-13). Inthe end, both the high priest Aaron and the incomparableprophet and leader Moses are condemnedto die outside the Promised Land of Canaan (Num.20:12, 22-29; Deut. 34:1-12). Aaron, like many leadersand prominent figures in the Bible, is humanlyflawed, but he remained at the same time an effectiveagent for the blessing and saving work of Godamong God's people.

    Bibliography. A. Cody, A History of Old TestamentPriesthood. AnBib 35 (Rome, 1969); W. Horbury,"The Aaronic Priesthood in the Epistle to theHebrews," JSNT 19 (1983): 43-71; R. D. Nelson,Raising Up a Faithful Priest: Community and Priesthoodin Biblical Theology (Louisville, 1993); L.Sabourin, Priesthood: A Comparative Study. Studiesin the History of Religions 25 (Leiden, 1973).

Dennis T. Olson

AB (Heb.)

The fifth month of the Hebrew sacred calendar(July/Aug.); this postexilic name was borrowed bythe Jews from the Babylonian Abu. In this monththe grapes and figs are harvested and on the seventhday a great fast commemorates the destructionof Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (587/586B.C.E.).

ABADDON (Heb.)

The "place of destruction" from the verb 'abad, "toperish" or "to fail." In its five occurrences in the OT(Ps. 88:ll[MT 12]; Job 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Prov.15:11), it is a synonym of "Sheol."

    In the NT Gk. Abaddon is the name of an angelthat rules over the deadly swarm of locusts, whichthe visionary sees as plaguing humanity, and overhell itself (Rev. 9:11). The basis of this "personification"seems to trace back to Job 28:22, whereAbaddon speaks, along with "death."

Jim West

ABAGTHA (Heb.)

One of the seven eunuchs of King Ahasuerus(Xerxes I, ca. 480 B.C.E.) who served as his chamberlains(Esth. 1:10). The name is probably of MiddleIranian origin (perhaps "gift of good fortune").

ABANA (Heb.)

A river, along with the Pharpar River to the south,that feeds the vast Ghouta oasis wherein Damascusis located. The modern name of the river is Barada;its source is in a large pool high in the Anti-LebanonMountains (usually identified with Mt.Amana; cf. Cant. 4:8). The river descends eastwarddown the mountain, flows through Damascus, anddisappears into a marshy take E of the city. TheAbana and the Pharpar are largely responsible forthe fertility for which the region of Damascus is famous;they provide a hedge against the encroachmentof the eastern desert.

    Naaman, the commander of the Arameanforces, compares the Abana (Q Amana) and thePharpar to the Jordan River in which Elisha toldhim to wash seven times to cure his leprosy (2 Kgs.5:12).

Ronald A. Simkins

ABARIM (Heb.)

A mountain range E of the Dead Sea and oppositethe Judean wilderness, overlooking the Jordan Valley.The name probably reflects the ancient easternorientation: one would go to the Abarim (i.e., "theregions beyond") on a journey eastward toTransjordan.

    Since the Israelites approached Canaan fromthe east, they had to pass through the Abarim. Theycamped in its highlands and descended from themto the plains of Moab (Num. 33:47-48). From Mt.Nebo, one of the peaks of the Abarim, Mosesviewed the Promised Land (Deut. 32:49).

    Jeremiah gives the Abarim the same geographicalsignificance as Lebanon and Bashan (22:20),suggesting that the Abarim were seen as encompassinga large geographical territory. There issome indication that at times the name Abarim referredto mountains S of Moab (Num. 33:44), althoughno boundaries for the Abarim are given.

David Merling

ABBA (Gk. abba)

A term used to address God. All three NT occurrencesare followed by the nominative translation"(the) Father." Mark claims that Jesus addressedGod as "Abba Father" in Gethsemane (14:36), butboth Matthew (26:39, 42) and Luke (22:42) omit theword Abba. Paul asserted that the Spirit cries "AbbaFather" in the hearts of believers (Gal. 4:6) and thatbelievers cry "Abba Father" in the Spirit of adoption(Rom. 8:15).

    Although the formula "Abba (the) Father" treatsAbba as an emphatic state form, Abba functions asa vocative in the NT. Some translations thereforepunctuate this formula as "Abba! Father!"

    Since both young children and grown childrenaddressed their fathers as "Abba," this word must betranslated as "father" and not as "daddy." Abba cannotbe defined as a mere babbling sound voiced bylittle children. Most scholars assume that Abba isAramaic, though Hebrew cannot be excluded.

    Bibliography. J. Jeremias, The Prayers of Jesus.SBT 2/6 (Naperville, 1967), 11-65; J. Barr, "'AbbaIsn't `Daddy,'" JTS N.S. 39 (1988): 28-47; M. R.D'Angelo, "Abba and 'Father'" JBL 111 (1992):611-30.

Robert L. Mowery

ABDA (Heb.) (also OBADIAH)

    1. The father of Adoniram, one of Solomon'sofficials (1 Kgs. 4:6).

    2. A Levite, the son of Shammua, who settledafter the Exile in Jerusalem (Neh. 11:17). At 1 Chr.9:16 his name is given as Obadiah the son ofShemaiah.

ABDEEL (Heb.)

The father of Shelemiah, one of Jehoiakim's courtiers(Jer. 36:26).

ABDI (Heb.)

    1. A Levite of the family of Merari. He was thegrandfather of Ethan, a temple singer during thedays of David (1 Chr. 6:44[MT 29]).

    2. The father of the Levite Kish, a contemporaryof King Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29:12).

    3. An Israelite who had to divorce his foreignwife during the ministry of Ezra (Ezra 10:26; 1 Esdr.9:27).

ABDIEL (Heb.)

A Gadite who dwelled in Gilead or in Bashan. Hewas the father of the chief Ahi (1 Chr. 5:15).

ABDON (Heb.) (PERSON)(also ACHBOR)

    1. The son of Hillel the Pirathonite, one of theso-called minor judges (Judg. 12:13-15). The commentthat he had 40 sons and 30 grandsons whorode on 70 donkeys is perhaps an indication of hiswealth. He was buried at Pirathon in "the hill countryof the Amalekites," territory allotted to the tribeof Ephraim.

    2. The son of Shashak, listed among the descendantsof Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:23).

    3. The firstborn son of Jeiel; Saul's great uncle(1 Chr. 9:36). The genealogy also appears in 1 Chr.8:29-38 with some textual variations.

    4. The son of Micah; one of the emissariesKing Josiah sent to Huldah the prophetess afterHilkiah's discovery of the book of the law (2 Chr.34:20). In the parallel passage in 2 Kgs. 22:12 thisperson is called Achbor (2) the son of Micaiah.

James R. Adair

ABDON (Heb.) (PLACE)

A levitical city in the tribal territory of Asher (Josh.21:30; 1 Chr. 6:74) assigned to the family ofGershom. It is probably Khirbet 'Abdeh, today aruin ca. 17 km. (10 mi.) NNE of Acco. At Josh. 19:28Ebron should perhaps be rendered Abdon.

ABEDNEGO (Heb.)

One of the four young Israelite men taken into thecourt of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar(Dan. 1:7). His Hebrew name, Azariah, was changedto Abednego by Nebuchadnezzar's chief eunuch,Ashpenaz. The name appears to be a perversion ofthe Akkadian name Arad-nabû, "servant of Nabû"(Nebuchadnezzar's personal god). Changing thenames of people in order to change their futureswas a common practice throughout the ancientNear East.

    The adventures of the four young men in theBabylonian court are recorded in Dan. 1-3. Theyremain faithful to their religious traditions and dietarylaws by living on vegetables and water, andtherefore are given knowledge and wisdom by God.Daniel is made the ruler over the whole province ofBabylon while the other three are made administratorsin the kingdom (2:48-49). After refusing toworship a golden image set up by Nebuchadnezzarthe men are thrown into a fiery furnace. They aresaved by a messenger of God for their faithfulness,and blessed and honored by Nebuchadnezzar.(3:12-30).

    1 Macc. 2:59 lists Azariah, Hanaiah, and Mishaelamong those faithful to God.

Nancy L. Declaissé-Walford

ABEL (Heb.) (PERSON)

The second son of Adam and Eve; a "keeper ofsheep" (Gen. 4:2).

    See CAIN AND ABEL.

ABEL (Heb.) (PLACE)

Abel of Beth-maacah, perhaps a cult center renownedfor its wisdom, to which Joab was referredfor counsel (2 Sam. 20:18).

    See Abel-beth-maacah.

ABEL-BETH-MAACAH (Heb.)

A city cited in biblical and other ancient Near Easterntexts, best identified with modern Tell Abil al-Qamh.("Meadow of the Wheat"; 204296). The latteris an imposing mound of 10 ha. (25 a.) on thenorthern border of Israel near Metulla, near majorwaterfall of the Jordan River tributaries, at thejuncture of the Huleh Valley and the Beqa' Valley inLebanon. The site is mentioned in the 19th/18th-centuryB.C. Egyptian Brussels Execration Texts(no. 47); in the list of sites of Thutmose III's firstAsiatic military campaign ca. 1468 (probably no.92; 'u-bil); and possibly in the 14th-century AmarnaLetters (no. 256; yuabilîma).

    Several biblical references suggest that Abel-beth-maacah(also called Abel-mayim) was originallypart of the holdings of the well-known Jordanianfamily of Ma'acah, later allotted to the tribeof Dan as "a mother in Israel,' i.e., probably a cultcenter (cf. 2 Sam. 20:14-22). According to 1 Kgs.15:20 (= 2 Chr. 16:4) Abel-beth-maacah was capturedby Ben-hadad I of Damascus ca. 829. Bothbiblical texts (2 Kgs. 15:29) and possibly Assyriantexts (a-b-il[ak-kal]) show that Abel-beth-maacahwas taken by Tiglath-pileser III ca. 733/732.

    The site has never been excavated, but surfacesurveys by William G. Dever in 1973 produced evidenceof occupation throughout nearly all of theEarly, Middle, and Late Bronze Ages, with especiallystrong walls and a glacis of MB, as well as occupationin the Iron I-II, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman,Byzantine, and later periods. The scantarchaeological evidence confirms that Abel-beth-maacah'ssuperb stratigraphic location, abundantmaterial resources, and strong defenses made it nodoubt as important as nearby Hazor and Dan inmost periods. Perched astride the historic bordersof Israel, Aramea, and Phoenicia, Abel-beth-Maacahwas indeed the "northern gateway" of ancientIsrael.

    Bibliography. W. G. Dever, "'Abel-Beth-Ma'acah:`Northern Gateway of Ancient Israel;" in TheArchaeology of Jordan and Other Studies, ed. L. T.Geraty and L. G. Herr (Berrien Springs, 1986),207-22; J. Kaplan, "The Identification of Abel-Beth-Maachahand Janoah," IEJ 28 (1978): 157-60; H.Tadmor, "The Southern Border of Aram," IEJ 12(1962): 119-22.

William G. Dever

ABEL-KERAMIM (Heb.)

A city in Ammon, to which Jephthah pursued theAmmonites (Judg. 11:33; Heb. "pasture of the vineyards").It has been identified variously with modernNa'ur (228142), ca. 14 km. (9 mi.) fromAmman; Tell el-'Umeiri (234142), 10 km. (6 mi.) Sof Amman; and Tell Sahab (245142), 12 km. (7.5mi.) SE of Amman.

ABEL-MEHOLAH (Heb.)

The home town of Elisha (1 Kgs. 19:16). Accordingto Judg. 7:22 Gideon chased the Midianites "towardZererah" (Zarethan), as far as "the border of Abelmeholah"(cf.1 Kgs. 7:46). There he crossed the Jordan(Judg. 8:4), so Abel-meholah may have been aterritory or town near the Jordan. 1 Kgs. 4:12 mentionsAbel-meholah as part of the territory ruled byan administrator named Baana, noting that Abelmeholahlay "below Jezreel," and listing Zarethanand Beth-shean as nearby cities.

    Scholars have offered numerous suggestions asto its location, including Tell Abû Sifri, near thejunction of the Wadi el-Helway and the Wadi Malih(which may preserve the name Meholah), S ofBeth-shean but some distance from the Jordan, andTell Abû Sús (203197), ca. 15 km. (11 mi.) S of Bethsheanand closer to the Jordan. Of the two, the latteris more likely.

    The term "Meholathite" (1 Sam. 18:19; 2 Sam.21:8) apparently referred to a resident of Abel-meholah.

Paul L. Redditt

ABEL-MIZRAIM (Heb.)

A name given to Atad, a place along the Jordanwhere Joseph, accompanied by Egyptian dignitaries,mourned for his deceased father Jacob (Gen.50:11). The name is a play on Heb. 'abal ("mourn")and 'ebel ("mourning rites"). On the basis of Gen.50:10-11 ("beyond the Jordan" the "inhabitants ofthe land") and v. 13 ("carried into the land"), somescholars have judged its location to be inTransjordan, N of the Dead Sea.

    See Atad.

ABEL-SHITTIM (Heb.)

A place of encampment for the Israelites at the endof the wilderness wanderings (Num. 33:49). It isprobably the same as Shittim, located E of the Jordan,in Moab.

ABGAR (Gk. Abgaros)

Common title of kings of Edessa, the capital ofOsrhoene, a small kingdom at the northern bend ofthe Euphrates River (modern Turkey). Eusebius (HE1.13) reports that the archives of Edessa containedcopies of correspondence between Abgar Ukkama(Abgar V "the Black") and Jesus in which Abgar requeststhat Jesus come to Edessa to heal him. Thestory is widely regarded as apocryphal, the result ofhistorical revisionism sometime after Abgar IX (ca.179-214 C.E.) converted to Christianity.

Charles Guth

ABI (Heb.) (also ABIJAH)

The wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah (2 Kgs.18:2). The name is a shortened form of Abijah (5)(2 Chr. 29:1).

ABI-ALBON (Heb.) (also ABIEL)

One of David's 30 Champions (2 Sam. 23:31); calledAbiel (2) the Arbathite at 1 Chr. 11:32 (cf. LXXAbiel). He may have been an inhabitant of Betharabah.

ABIASAPH (Heb.) (also EBIASAPH)

A Levite of the family of Korah and contemporaryof Phinehas the grandson of Aaron (Exod. 6:24-25).At 1 Chr. 6:23; 9:19 he is called Ebiasaph. The Asaphof 1 Chr. 26:1 may be an abbreviated form (LXX BAbia-Saphar).

ABIATHAR (Heb.)

A descendant of Ithamar (and Eli; 1 Sam. 22:20-23),who eventually served as high priest during David'sreign.

    Abiathar served as a priest at Nob with his fatherAhimelech. When Saul massacred Abiathar'sfellow priests, including his father, Abiathar fled tojoin David, bringing with him the ephod (1 Sam.22:20-22; 23:6, 9). He served David and functionedas David's chief priest in the pre-Hebron and Hebronyears. His exact function during their wildernessflight from Saul remains unclear.

    Following Absalom's rebellion against David(2 Sam. 15:1-12), Zadok acted as high priest and directedthe relocation of the ark, while Abiathar directedthe offering of various sacrifices until all therefugees had left Jerusalem (v. 24). However, Davidcommanded both men to return to Jerusalem withthe ark and serve as his "listening posts" (15:25-29;cf. 17:15-16). Throughout the remainder of David'sreign, Abiathar served as one of David's counselors(1 Chr. 27:34).

    Solomon expelled Abiathar from his priestly officeafter Abiathar supported Adonijah as king(1 Kgs. 1-2). This represented the prophesied endof Eli's line of the priesthood. Solomon exiledAbiathar and his descendants to Anathoth and revokedhis priestly privileges (1 Kgs. 1:19, 25; 2:22,26, 35). Some have suggested that Jeremiah, whodescended from a priestly family in Anathoth, mayhave been a descendant of Abiathar.

    In a listing of David's officials, Zadok is mentionedas the priestly counterpart of Ahimelech,the son of Abiathar (2 Sam. 8:17; cf. 1 Chr. 24:3, 6,31), but in most instances Zadok and Abiatharserve as counterparts. Thus, several scholars suggestthat the names of Ahimelech and Abiathar arehere reversed (cf. Syr.). Others contend thatAbiathar named his son after Ahimelech. In anycase, during most of this period Zadok andAbiathar shared the priestly duties.

    Bibliography. P. McCarter, 2 Samuel. AB 9(Garden City, 1984); E. H. Merrill, Kingdom ofPriests: A History of Old Testament Israel (GrandRapids, 1987).

Michael A. Grisanti

ABIB (Heb.)

The original name of the first Hebrew month, mentionedin connection with the Feast of the UnleavenedBread or the Passover (Mar./Apr.); after the Exileit was called Nisan (Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7). Itsdesignation "month of the ears" (Heb. hodeš ha'abîb,"month of young ear of barley [or 'other grain']";e.g., Exod. 13:4) may point to the new moon nearestto, or preceding, the growth of barley.

ABIDA (Heb.)

A descendant of Abraham and Keturah throughMidian, their fourth son (Gen. 25:4 = 1 Chr. 1:33).

ABIDAN (Heb.)

The son of Gideoni; "leader" of the tribe ofBenjamin during the wilderness wanderings (Num.2:22; 10:24). Abidan assisted Moses at the taking ofthe census (Num. 1:11) and made his offering onthe ninth day of the dedication of the tabernacle(7:60, 65).

ABIEL (Heb.) (also ABI-ALBON)

    1. A Benjaminite, the father of Kish and Ner.Also the grandfather of King Saul and Abner, thecommander of Saul's army (1 Sam. 9:1; 14:51).

    2. An Arbathite warrior (1 Chr. 11:32) and amember of David's heroes known as the "Thirty."In 2 Sam. 23:31 he is called Abi-albon.

Kenneth Atkinson

ABIEZER (Heb.) (also IEZER)

    1. A descendant of Manasseh (1 Chr. 7:18). AtNum. 26:30 an abbreviated form of his name occurs(Iezer). The Abiezrites were given a district in thetribal territory of Manasseh W of the Jordan (Josh.17:2) which included the city of Ophrah. Gideonwas an Abiezrite (Judg. 6:11; cf. v. 34).

    2. One of David's Champions, the commander ofthe ninth division of his army (2 Sam. 23:37 = 1 Chr.11:28; 27:12). He was from Anathoth in Benjamin.

ABIGAIL (Heb.)

    1. Wife of Nabal, then David (1 Sam. 25), andmother of David's second-born son, named variouslyChileab (2 Sam. 3:3), Daniel (1 Chr. 3:1), orDaluiah (2 Sam. 3:3 LXX). Abigail accompaniedDavid on his visit to King Achish at Gath (1 Sam.27:3) and was later taken hostage during anAmalekite raid on David's fortress at Ziklag (30:5).After her rescue, she went with David to Hebron(2 Sam. 2:2), where she bore him a child (2 Sam. 3:3= 1 Chr. 3:1). Of the five references to Abigail outside1 Sam. 25, all but one (1 Chr. 3:1) refer to her asNabal's widow. In each she is closely linked to anotherof David's wives, Ahinoam.

    Recent literary treatments of Abigail's characterizationpresent her as a "model wife and modestwoman" (Adele Berlin) and a "woman of 'goodsense'" (Athalya Brenner). A different approachemphasizes Abigail's prophetic words in 1 Sam.25:28-31 and presents her as "God's chosenprophet-intermediary," a more subversive characterthan normally realized (Alice Bach).

    2. Sister of David (1 Chr. 2:16) and Zeruiah(2 Sam. 17:25), and mother of Amasa (2 Sam. 17:25;1 Chr. 2:17). She was the daughter of either Jesse(1 Chr. 2:16) or Nahash (2 Sam. 17:25) and the wifeof either Ithra the Israelite (2 Sam. 17:25) or Jetherthe Ishmaelite (1 Chr. 2:17) or Jezreelite ( 1 Chr. 2:17LXX). Some scholars suggest that Ithra/Jether wasNabal's real identity, and thus there was only oneAbigail—David's sister, who later became his wife.

    Bibliography. A. Bach, "The Pleasure of HerText" in The Pleasure of Her Text (Philadelphia,1990), 25-44; A. Berlin, Poetics and Interpretation ofBiblical Narratives (Sheffield, 1983); A. Brenner,The Israelite Woman: Social Role and Literary Typein Biblical Narrative (Sheffield, 1985); J. D.Levenson and B. Halpern, "The Political Import ofDavid's Marriages," JBL 99 (1980): 507-18.

Linda S. Schearing

ABIHAIL (Heb.)

    1. A Levite of the family of Merari; the father ofZuriel (Num. 3:35).

    2. The wife of Abishur of the family of Judah(1 Chr. 2:29).

    3. A man from the tribe of Gad; the father ofseven sons (1 Chr. 5:14).

    4. The daughter of David's brother Eliab andwife of David's son Jerimoth. Their daughterMahalath became the wife of King Rehoboam ofJudah (2 Chr. 11:18).

    5. The father of Queen Esther and uncle ofMordecai (Esth. 2:15; 9:29).

ABIHU (Heb.)

An Israelite priest of the wilderness period. ThePriestly genealogy lists Abihu, Nadab, Eleazar, andIthamar as sons of Aaron, born to him by Elisheba(Exod. 6:23; Num. 26:60; 1 Chr. 6:3[MT 5:29]; cf.Exod. 28:1). Abihu and Nadab met their demise foroffering Yahweh "strange fire" (Heb. 'eš zarâ a crux;Lev. 10:1-2). The P narrative here emphasizes theresponsibility of the Aaronic priests and explainsthe dominance of the descendants of Eleazar,Abihu's younger brother, in the Jerusalem cult(Num. 3:2, 4; 1 Chr. 24:1, 2). In contrast to P, the Estrand celebrates the priestly heterogeneity thatNadab and Abihu represent with its story of theirparticipation in the covenant ratification on Mt.Horeb (Exod. 24:1, 9).

    Bibliography. J. C. H. Laughlin, "The 'StrangeFire' of Nadab and Abihu," JBL 95 (1976): 559-65.

Stephen L. Cook

ABIHUD (Heb.)

The third son of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr.8:3). Some scholars emend the text to read Heb. abî,'ehûd, "the father of Ehud." Others consider it avariant of Abiud (cf. LXX Abioud).

ABIJAH (Heb.) (also ABI, ABIJAM)

    1. The second son of Samuel, who served (togetherwith his brother, Joel) as a judge in Beershebaand was corrupted by duplicity (1 Sam. 8:2-3;1 Chr. 6:13[MT 28]).

    2. The son of Jeroboam I, king of Israel. Whenhe fell ill, he sent his wife in disguise to the prophetAhijah at Shiloh; the ruse failed, and Abijah died inTirzah in accordance with the prophecy (1 Kgs.14:1-18; cf. LXX 3 Kgdms. 12:24g-n).

    3. King of Judah (ca. 913-911 B.C.E.), son ofRehoboam and Maacah (Micaiah, 2 Chr. 13:2),daughter of Absalom's daughter Tamar and Uriel.The MT of 2 Chronicles reads Abijah,while the MT of 1 Kings reads Abijam;LXX Abiou. Abijah went to war (probably a borderconflict) with King Jeroboam I of Israel (1 Kgs.15:7b; 2 Chr. 13:3, 13-19). Although the Deuteronomistichistorian thought negatively of Abijah'sreligious activity (1 Kgs. 15:3-5, in peculiarDeuteronomistic phrasing), the Chronicler describeshim as a pious king. Therefore, according tothe Chronicler, Abijah won his war against Rehoboam(2 Chr. 13:15-19). Abijah also succeeded inhis personal life: he had 14 wives, 16 daughters, and22 sons (2 Chr. 13:21). The speech in 2 Chr. 13:4-12,which was ascribed to Abijah, contains the maintheological concepts of the Chronicler.

    4. The head of the eighth division of priests(1 Chr. 24:10). According to Luke 1:5 Zechariah, thefather of John the Baptist, belonged to this division.

    5. The wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah,king of Judah (2 Chr. 29:1). She is called Abi (LXXAbou) in 2 Kgs. 18:2.

    6. The wife of Hezron (1 Chr. 2:24 MT). Abijahdoes not appear in the Syriac Version, and somecommentators regard it as a gloss (cf. RSV).

    7. The son of Becher from the tribe ofBenjamin (1 Chr. 7:6, 8; LXX reads "Zamria").

    8. A priest who signed ("set his seal upon") therenewed covenant of the community in the time ofNehemiah (Neh. 10:817]; cf. 12:4, 17).

    9. A priest who returned from Babylonia withZerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:1-4) and was headof a priestly group (v. 7).

    The name Abijah also occurs on a seal preservedon ostracons (e.g., from Samaria and Arad).

    Bibliography. I. Kalimi, The Books of Chronicles:A Classified Bibliography (Jerusalem, 1990),173-74, nos. 1691-1705.

Isaac Kalimi

ABIJAM (Heb.)

A variation of the name of King Abijah of Judah(esp. MT 1 Kings).

ABILA (Gk. Abila)

A city located on the Wadi Quailibah, 12 Romanmi. E of Gadara (modern Umm Qeis), and ca. 4 km.(2.5 mi.) S of the Yarmuk River. Abila (231231)measures ca. 1 km. (.6 mi.) north-south and .5 km.(.3 mi.) east-west in area. It consists of two tells(Tell Abila in the north, and Umm el-'Amad in thesouth), a civic center in a depression in between,fertile agricultural fields all around, and a spring atthe base of the south tell.

    Abila, as a Decapolis city founded probably byAlexander the Great's Hellenistic successors (accordingto the coin tradition; Abila had the toponymSeleucia), was captured by the Seleucid king AntiochusIII, by the Hasmonean king AlexanderJannaeus, and by Pompey. Pliny (Nat. hist. 5.74) callsit a tetrarchy/kingdom, and Ptolemy (Geog. 5.7.22), aDecapolis city. Abila also carried the titles CoeleSyria,"independent," and "sovereign."

    Abila's archaeological history (from 3500 B.C. toA.D. 1500) reveals settlement remains from EarlyBronze to Islamic times. The city follows the classicaltown plan of main streets at right angles. Excavatedremains include basilicas, a bath-nymphaeumcomplex (north), a theater cavea complex(south), a church, and a forum or villa complex. Acity wall of Hellenistic-Roman (and possibly IronAge) date surrounded the Tell Abila acropolis. Anextensive necropolis extends all around the site,consisting largely of Late Hellenistic and Romanand Byzantine tomb complexes.

    Bibliography. W. H. Mare, "Abila" NEAEHL1:1-3; Mare et al., Preliminary reports in The NearEast Archaeological Society Bulletin (Chicago,1981-1996).

W. Harold Mare

ABILENE (Gk. Abilene)

A region in the eastern part of the Anti-Lebanonrange. Its capital, Abila, was ca. 27 km. (17 mi.) NWof Damascus. In NT times Lysanias was the tetrarchof this district (Luke 3:1). After Lysanias' death thetetrarchy was granted to Agrippa I (37 C.E.) andlater to Agrippa II (53).

ABIMAEL (Heb.)

One of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22);progenitor of a South Arabian tribe.

ABIMELECH (Heb.)

    1. The king of Gerar who, believing Sarah to beAbraham's sister, took her for his own spouse (Gen.20:2) until God revealed to him that she was Abraham'swife and death would be the result of his molestingher. Abimelech also appears in a similarstory involving Rebekah and Isaac (Gen. 26:1-16),where he warns others not to molest Rebekah orthey will be put to death, suggesting he learnedfrom the first episode. In this latter tale he is called"Abimelech of the Philistines," which can only be ananachronism reflecting a story told well after theevents were supposed to have taken place.

    2. The son of Gideon (Jerubbaal) and his concubinein Shechem (Judg. 8:31). His story (Judg. 9)is told to demonstrate the dangers of kingship, thedivine preference for individually selected rulers,and the futility of trust in gods other than Yahweh.His name, "My father is king," may be a literary device;otherwise it would suggest that Gideon sawhimself as a king and so named this son to reflectthat status, or perhaps it was a throne name takenafter seizing power to legitimate his own claim tothe throne. The name Abi-melek was relativelycommon in ancient Syria-Palestine.

    Seeking the kingship which by inheritanceshould have belonged to his 70 half-brothers byGideon's official wives, Abimelech, with the urgingof the citizens of Shechem and the aid of personnelfrom the temple of Baal-berith ("Baal of the Covenant"),assassinated all but one of his brothers;Jothan, the youngest, managed to escape (a standardplot motif). The populace of Shechem declaredAbimelech king in succession to his father,who had been a popular judge. He set up his capitaloutside Shechem, finally at Arumah (Judg. 9:31,41), which may explain the ensuing revolt byShechem. He reigned for three years.

    Jothan declared that the duplicity of theShechemites and of Abimelech would be returnedupon them. This was accomplished when Shechemdeclared Gaal son of Ebed, a newcomer to town, itsking in place of Abimelech. In the resultant battleAbimelech and his ally in the city, Zebul, defeatedShechem, overrunning the lower city and thenburning the inner city with a thousand of its citizensinside. The temple of El-berith, to which thepopulace had fled, was no protection, for all wereslain and the city's ruins sown with salt to guaranteeits continued destruction.

    From there Abimelech moved on Thebez andattempted the same tactic, only here a woman inthe city's fortress dropped a millstone on his head.Knowing he was to die, he asked his attendant toslay him so that no one would say a woman hadkilled him, but this only insured that it would be remembered(2 Sam. 11:21).

    3. In the heading of Ps. 34, a ruler before whomDavid feigned insanity in order to escape. The storyto which this line alludes appears to concern Achishking of Gath (1 Sam. 21:10-22:1), but may possiblyrefer to another incident where David used thesame ruse with a different ruler otherwise not recorded.Less likely, it has been argued that Achishand Abimelech were two different names for thesame ruler.

    4. One of David's two chief priests, the son ofAbiathar (1 Chr. 18:16 MT). While some translationsretain the Hebrew form of the name, mosttranslators assume a scribal error and readAhimelech son of Abiathar with 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr.24:6.

    Bibliography. J. P. Fokkelman, "Structural Remarkson Judges 9 and 19," in "Sha'arei Talmon," ed.M. Fishbane and E. Tov (Winona Lake, 1992), 33-45;B. Halpern, "The Rise of Abimeleck Ben-Jerubbaal,"HAR 2 (1978): 79-100.

Lowell K. Handy

ABINADAB (Heb.)

    1. The father of Eleazer. 1 Sam. 7:1 reports thatmen from Kiriath-jearim moved the ark fromBeth-shemesh to the "house of Abinadab" wherethe newly consecrated son of Abinadab, Eleazar,took responsibility for the ark. Abinadab was alsothe father of Uzzah and possibly Ahio (2 Sam. 6:3,4; 1 Chr. 13:7), if Heb. 'ahyô is a personal name andnot a reference to Eleazar, "his brother." Eleazar'sconsecration, the 20-year possession of the ark, andthe ambiguous Hebrew term bêt suggest that the"house of Abinadab" refers to a temple.

    2. Jesse's second son (1 Sam. 16:8; 1 Chr. 2:13),who served in Saul'S army against the Philistines al-Elahwhere David killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:13).

    3. The fourth son of Saul (1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39),who died with his brothers Jonathan and Malchishuaon Mt. Gilboa (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 10:2).1 Sam. 14:49 omits Abinadab in Saul's genealogy.

William D. Matherly

ABINOAM (Heb.)

The father of Barak of the tribe of Naphtali (Judg.4:6, 12; 5:1, 12).

ABIRAM (Heb.)

    1. The son of Eliab, a Reubenite (Num. 16:1).Abiram, along with his brother Dathan, his cousinOn, and Korah, organized an uprising in the wildernessagainst Moses and Aaron. They werejoined by 250 leaders of the congregation of Israel(Num. 16:1-35). The conspirators, motivated byenvy, accused Moses of self-exaltation and challengedhis interpretation of who was holy beforeGod.

    When Moses asked for Abiram and Dathan toappear before him, they refused, complaining thatMoses had failed to bring the people into a land offields and vineyards. Abiram, Dathan, Korah, andall of their families and possessions, except for thesons of Korah, were then swallowed alive by theearth (16:31-33). The leaders of the congregationwho had joined the uprising were consumed by theLord's fire (16:35; 26:9; Deut. 11:6; Ps. 106:17).

    2. The firstborn son of Hiel, the Bethelite(1 Kgs. 16:34). Abiram died during the reign ofAhab because his father laid the foundations for therebuilding of Jericho in direct violation of the cursespoken by Joshua after the conquest of Jericho(Josh. 6:26). Some scholars suggest that his deathwas intended as a foundation sacrifice.

Alan Ray Buescher

ABISHAG (Heb.)

The Shunammite virgin who attended to the agedKing David (1 Kgs. 1:4, 15). That David had no sexualrelations with Abishag is sometimes interpretedas an indication of the king's inability to govern.The Talmud, however, notes that David did notmake Abishag his wife because he refused to exceedthe legal number of wives — 18 — allowed to aking (Sanh. 22a).

    Later, Abishag became a political pawn in thesuccession struggle between David's sons. AfterSolomon was declared king and David had died,Adonijah asked for Abishag's hand in marriage(1 Kgs. 2:17). Solomon interpreted Adonijah's requestas an attempt to overthrow the throne and orderedhis execution (1 Kgs. 2:22-25).

    In Jewish lore Abishag is seen in her later yearsas the Shunammite who gives hospitality to Elishathe prophet (2 Kgs. 4:8-37).

Robin Gallaher Branch

ABISHAI (Heb. 'dbtlay)

One of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's sister,who served with David when he fled Saul's court(1 Sam. 22:1-2). Abishai held the special position ofcommander of David's elite warriors—the šalîsîm(2 Sam. 23:18-19)—among whom he was also themost renowned. One vignette credits Abishai withsaving David's life during the Philistine wars(2 Sam. 21:16-17). Within David's administration,Abishai appears as a kind of second-in-commandof the army, and he is typical of David's inner circleof advisors with his combination of loyalty to, yetindependence from, the king.

    Abishai is conspicuously absent from the intriguesurrounding the struggle between Solomonand Adonijah for the throne (1 Kgs. 1-2), and indeedhe may have died sometime before it began.Benaiah ben Jehoiada appears here as the leader ofDavid's warrior elite.

    Abishai and his brother Joab also provide a keyfoil for the text's explication of David's personality.The record implicates Abishai in Joab's revengeslaying of Abner the son of Net (2 Sam. 3:30), and itlumps him with Joab in David's condemnation of"the sons of Zeruiah" as ruthless men of blood(3:39; 16:10). While David appears to renounce violencetoward his enemies (1 Sam. 26:6-12; 2 Sam.16:9-14), Abishai and Joab appear as the proverbialviolent men, whose ruthless deeds will overtakethem. At the same time the writer appreciates—andclearly reveals—the irony in David's condemnationof the very men upon whose shoulders hiskingdom's security clearly rests.

    Bibliography. D. G. Schley, "Joab and David:Ties of Blood and Power," in History and Interpretation,ed. M. P. Graham, W. P. Brown, and J. K. Kuan(Sheffield, 1993), 90-105.

Donald G. Schley

ABISHALOM (Heb.)

An alternate rendering of the name Absalom(1 Kgs. 15:2, 10).

ABISHUA (Heb.)

    1. The son of the high priest Phinehas (1 Chr.6:4[MT 5:30]) and great-grandson of Aaron(6:50135]). According to Ezra 7:5 he was an ancestorof Ezra the scribe.

    2. A Benjaminite, one of the sons of Bela, andgrandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:4).

ABISHUR (Heb.)

A Judahite of the family of Hezron; a son ofShammai and brother of Nadab. He marriedAbihail and became the father of two sons (1 Chr.2:28-29).

ABITAL (Heb.)

One of David's wives and mother of his fifth sonShephatiah (2 Sam. 3:4 = 1 Chr. 3:3).

ABITUB (Heb.)

One of the two sons of Shamaraim and his first wifeHushin (1 Chr. 8:11).

ABIUD (Gk. Abiodd)

The son of Zerubbabel, according to Matthew's genealogyof Jesus (Matt. 1:13).

ABNER (Heb.)

Saul's uncle and the commander of his army(1 Sam. 14:50). Abner apparently had at least oneson, a certain Jaasiel, who led the tribe of Benjaminduring David's reign (1 Chr. 27:21).

    While Saul ruled Israel, Abner may have servedas Saul's personal bodyguard. David once chastisedAbner for failing to protect Saul while they slept(1 Sam. 26:13-25). After Saul's death, Abner instigatedthe accession of Saul's son Ishbaal to thethrone of Israel and spearheaded the transfer of thecapital from Gibeah to Mahanaim in Transjordan(2 Sam. 2:8, 12). During Ishbaal's short reign of twoyears, Abner apparently still served as commanderof the army, but he seems to have had much morepower. When the leadership of Ishbaal was failing,Abner sought to take over by acquiring one ofSaul's concubines, Rizpah (access to the royalharem indicated one's rightful claim to the throne).When confronted by Ishbaal about his machinations,Abner defected to David. Abner's motivationsare uncertain, but perhaps he believed he hada greater chance to gain the throne of Israel by allyingwith David. He also might have expected to replaceJoab as commander of David's army.

    After visiting David in Hebron to arrange David'saccession to the throne of Israel, Abner wasmurdered by Joab to avenge the death of his brotherAsahel, whom Abner had killed, purportedly inself-defense following the skirmish at Gibeon(2 Sam. 2:18-28). Joab's secondary motivation mayhave been the threat that Abner posed to Joab's positionin David's army. Although the text does notimplicate David in Abner's murder, some scholarsbelieve that he may have ordered it since 2 Samueltries so hard to say otherwise.

Paul S. Ash

ABRAHAM (Heb.)

The son of Terah, husband of Sarah, father ofIshmael and Isaac, and grandfather of Jacob. He isthe common patriarch of the three "Abrahamic' religions:Jews trace their ancestry to Abrahamthrought his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob-Israel,Muslims trace theirs through his sonIshmael, and Christians claim descent from Abrahamthrough faith (Gal. 3:6-7, 29).

    The biblical story of Abraham describes his divineselection as the ancestor of Israel and sets inmotion the long process by which his descendantseventually become a populous nation in a land oftheir own. At the beginning Abraham is living withhis wife Sarah and his nephew Lot in the Mesopotamiancity of Haran. Yahweh commands him toleave his ancestral home and move to a new land,where his descendants will be divinely blessed andgrow into a great nation (Gen. 12:1-3). This promisecannot be fulfilled within Abraham's own lifetime,but its realization is foreshadowed in theensuing events, as Abraham and Sarah take up residencein the land promised to them, and Isaac, theson from whom the nation will descend, is born.

    The great patriarch first appears as "Abram"(`abram, Gen. 11:26), but eventually God changeshis name to 'abraham (17:5). The two forms probablyoriginated as dialectal variants—the longerform, with internal -h-, corresponds to a pattern especiallycommon in Aramaic; the meaning in eitherform was "the Father is exalted" the God of Abrahambeing praised as divine father of kinsmen.Even so, the author of Gen. 17, in which Abram ispromised a multitude of offspring, gives a thematicinterpretation of the new name as "the father of amultitude ('ab-hamôn) of nations." This chaptercontains the formal articulation of the Priestly (P)version of the covenant between God and Abraham'sdescendants, and the change of name is anindication of the change of status that occurs whenthe covenant is established, signifying a new identityin relation to the name-giver (cf. 2 Kgs. 23:34).The name of Abram's wife is also changed—fromSarai to Sarah (Gen. 17:15)—and his grandson'sname will be changed from Jacob to Israel (17:15;32:28[MT 29]).

    It is difficult to say whether the traditional storiesabout Abraham were based on the life of a historicalindividual and, if so, exactly when the historicalAbraham might have lived. The biblicalwriters regarded him as a figure of the distant past,living many generations before the establishmentof Israel as a political entity, and modern scholarshave attempted to identify a pre-Israelite contextinto which the stories might fit. Following anonurban period at the end of the 3rd millenniumB.C., there were two centuries of gradual resettlementin Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine (MiddleBronze I or IIA), followed by an age of increasedpopulation and cultural expansion characterizedby the development of large urban centers (MB IIor IIB). Since Abraham and his family are presentedas nomads, even after arriving in Canaan,historians have attempted to associate the travels ofAbraham and his family with the movements ofpeoples during the settlement period of MB I, or tounderstand their activities in terms of our knowledgeof nomadic peoples living alongside the greatcities of MB II.

    The earliest surviving reference to Abrahammay be in a 10th-century Egyptian text, which refersto a place in the Negeb called "the Fortress ofAbraham," listed among places conquered by the22nd-Dynasty king Sheshonq (Shishak) in his incursioninto Palestine during the reign of Renoboam(cf. 1 Kgs. 14:25-26; 2 Chr. 12:2-12). If theAbraham for whom this fortress was named is thebiblical patriarch, then the Abraham tradition waswell established in the Negeb by the 10th century,This would be consistent with the geographicalsetting of the biblical narrative, in which Abrahamhas strong ties to the Negeb—especially to Beersheba,where Isaac is born and raised—and toother southern locations, most notably Hebron,near which Abraham's family had its principal residenceat the "oaks of Mature" (Gen. 13:18; 14:13;18:1). These geographical associations are sometimestaken as an indication that the Abraham traditionoriginated in the south, but they are morelikely the result of a southern orientation of the traditionthat developed after the settlement of theNegeb in the 11th century and, more especially, aster the establishment of the Davidic dynasty withits strong associations with Hebron, the traditionalcapital of the tribe of Judah. Indeed, there are someindications that Abraham's earliest geographicalassociations were not with Hebron but with theoriginal Israelite homeland in the hill countrynorth of Jerusalem. Whether the Abraham traditionoriginated in the south or the north, however,in the present form of the tradition Abrahamis is nota regional figure but a patriarch of the entire land.This is perhaps shown most clearly by the places ofworship he is said to have founded, which rangeacross the heartland of ancient Israel, north andsouth. He builds an altar to Yahweh at Stechem inthe central Samarian hills (Gen. 12:6-7), anothernorth of Jerusalem at a point between Bethel andAi (v. 8), and a third at Hebron in the southernJudean hills (13:18). At Beer-sheba in the northernNegeb he plants a sacred tree (21:33).

    As the founder of these shrines, Abraham initiatesthe process by which the worship of Yahweh isestablished throughout Canaan. He also engages ina number of other foundational activities — territorialnegotiations, land purchases, even militaryexpeditions—which determine and clarify the relationshipsof his family to the neighboring peoples.These are the actions of a founding patriarch,whose deeds define the social roles and ethnic consciousnessof his descendants. The most importantvehicle of this social and ethnic definition is theelaborate genealogy in which Abraham is introducedand which he extends by the marriages hemakes and the children he begets. His family backgroundis documented primarily in Gen. 11:10-32,a continuation of the genealogy of Noah's eldestson Shem, begun in 10:21-31. Shem was "the fatherof all the children of Eber" (10:21), i.e., the Hebrews,who in biblical tradition are contrasted withthe Canaanites and other indigenous peoples of thePromised Land. Abraham himself was the eldest ofthe three sons of Terah (Gen. 11:26), during whoselifetime the family is said to have moved from Ur, insouthern Mesopotamia, to Haran on the BalikhRiver in northwestern Mesopotamia. In the time ofthe biblical writers Haran was a major caravan city,from which travelers could cross the Euphrates andproceed south via the oasis of Tadmor (Palmyra) toDamascus, picking up the King's Highway and continuing,east of the Jordan, to Canaan and pointsfarther south. This is evidently the route that Abraham'sfamily was believed to have taken, and thefamily ties to Haran, and ultimately to Ur, reflectthe Israelite belief that their earliest ancestral connectionswere with the peoples of Transeuphrates,not with the indigenous peoples of Canaan. Thusthe names of Abraham's immediate ascendants(Gen. 11:22-26; 1 Chr. 1:26-27) correspond to thenames of cities in the vicinity of Haran: Serug, thename of Abraham's great-grandfather, was thename of a city situated between Haran and the Euphrates;Nahor, the name of both Abraham's grandfatherand one of his two brothers, was the name ofa city (Nakhur) located SE of Haran on the upperBalikh; and Terah was the name of a city (Til-[sha]Turakhi)in the Balikh River basin. The name ofAbraham's other brother Haran (haran) is similarbut not identical to the name of the city of Haran(haran) itself.

    The names of the descendants of the three sonsof Terah—Abraham, Nahor, and Haran—correspondto the names of the peoples recognized bythe biblical writers as belonging to Israel's largerkinship group. Nahor's sons bear the names of the12 tribes of the Arameans. Eight of these were locatedin the Syrian Desert, the Aramean homeland(Gen. 22:20-23), while the remaining four eventuallyexpanded westward into Syria (v. 24). Haran'sson Lot was the father of Moab and Ben-ammi, theeponymous ancestors of the TransjordanianAmmonites and Moabites (Gen. 19:37-38), who aretherefore known in biblical tradition as "the childrenof Lot" (Deut. 2:9, 19; Ps. 83:8[9]). By attributingtheir patrimony to Abraham's nephew, the traditionaccorded them a junior kinship to Israel, andby presenting the circumstances of their conceptionas an incestuous union between Lot and hisdaughters (Gen. 19:30-38), the tradition cast ashadow over their lineage, especially in contrast tothe auspicious circumstances of the birth of Israel'sancestor, Isaac.

    Abraham's own descendants fall into threegroups: those descended from Ishmael (Ishmaelitesor Arabs), those descended from Isaac (Edomitesand Israelites), and those descended from the varioussons of Keturah (a collateral line of Arabs).Their relative status in Israelite tradition is reflectedin the status of their mothers. Isaac was theson of Abraham's wife Sarah and the father of Jacob-Israel,whose 12 sons were the ancestors of the12 tribes who eventually would inherit the landpromised to Abraham in Canaan. As shown by the"Edomite Genesis" of Gen. 36, Esau-Edom, Isaac'sother son, was the eponymous ancestor of theEdomites, whom Israelite tradition divided intothree groups descended from Esau's three wives.Abraham's other sons were the sons of concubines,Hagar and Keturah, and he sent them away "to theeast" (Gen. 25:6), i.e., to Arabia. Thus the 12 sons ofIshmael, the son of Hagar, bear the names of 12peoples of northern Arabia (Gen. 25:13-15; 1 Chr.1:29-31), who inhabited the Syrian Desert east andsoutheast of Gilead. These were the Hagrite orHagarene tribes (1 Chr. 5:10, 19-20; cf. Ps. 83:6[7];Bar. 3:23); most of their names are those of tribesmentioned in biblical or extrabiblical sources. Thenames of Keturah's sons (Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32) aremore difficult to explain than those of Hagar, but ingeneral they too seem to correspond to the namesof Arabian groups and places.

    Taken altogether, therefore, the genealogicaltraditions associated with Abraham identify Israelwithin three kinship groups of progressively narrowingboundaries and increasing affinity. Themost general group is that of the Semites or descendantsof Shem and, more particularly, the descendantsof Eber or Hebrews. The next group comprisesthe Terachic peoples — the descendants ofthe three sons of Abraham's father, Terah. These includethe Arameans and the Transjordanian peoplesof Ammon and Moab. The narrowest group isthat of the Abrahamic peoples, descendants ofAbraham himself. They include the Ishmaelites ornorthern Arabian tribes, the Edomites, and the Israelitesthemselves.

    The most striking characteristic of Abraham'sportrayal in the Genesis narrative—and for whichhe is most admired in later tradition—is his passiveobedience to the divine directives he receives.At the beginning of his story he is told to leave hishomeland behind and travel "to the land that I willshow you," a place about which he knows nothing.That he seems to accept this summons withoutquestion or hesitation may be a consequence of theliterary economy of the narrative, but in postbiblicalinterpretation his passive acceptance hasbeen seen as a paradigm of the unquestioning obediencethat arises from trust in God. This is all themore true of the story of the "binding" ('aqedâ) ofIsaac, told near the end of the Abraham narrative(Gen. 22:1-19). After Isaac is born and the divinepromise of progeny, which had been jeopardized byAbraham's old age and Sarah's barrenness, seemson the way to fulfillment, God tests Abraham by instructinghim to take Isaac to "one of the mountainsthat I shall show you" and sacrifice him thereas a burnt offering. Again Abraham obeys withouthesitation and is at the point of putting his son todeath when God intervenes and substitutes a ramfor the offering. Principally on the basis of this remarkable-story,Abraham came to be regarded as aparagon of faith or trust in God for Jews and Christians—andalso for Muslims, in whose tradition itis Ishmael, rather than Isaac, whose sacrifice is demanded.

P. Kyle Mccarter, Jr.

ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF

A 1st- to mid-2nd century C.E. Jewish apocalypse,probably composed in a Semitic language, but extantonly in Slavonic. Although the work may notbe composite, most scholars identify two majorparts and several possible interpolations.

1. Chs.1-8 are a late, humorous story about the conversion of Abraham from idolatry after he reflects on the nature of idols and prays that he might know the Creator, who then appears in a theophany.

2. Chs. 9-32, the original apocalypse, are a midrash on Gen. 15:9-17. God instructs the angel Iaoel (YHWH 'l) to help Abraham offer sacrifices on Horeb, where Abraham encounters the fallen angel Azazel. Iaoel then takes Abraham on an otherworldly journey and shows him a vision of God, God's throne and attendants (cf. Ezek. 1, 10), the various heavens, the earth and the abyss, and a picture depicting all of human history (cf. 1 En. 1-36).

    Bibliography. R. Rubinkiewicz, "Apocalypse ofAbraham," OTP 1 (Garden City, 1983): 681-705; G.Vermes, "Jewish Literature Composed in Hebrewor Aramaic" in E. Schürer, The History of the JewishPeople in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D.135), rev. ed., 3/1 (Edinburgh, 1986): 288-92.

R. Glenn Wooden

ABRAHAM, TESTAMENT OF

A pseudepigraphal book in which Abraham learnsfrom the archangel Michael that the time has comefor his death. Abraham, however, refuses to die, usinghis privileged position as the friend of God toforestall the inevitable. The story thus departs froman anticipated deathbed gathering (a testament) tobecome apocalyptic in nature as Abraham toursthe inhabited world and journeys to the scene ofthe judgment. The principal theme is that God iscompassionate and patient with sinners, desiringthat all repent and live. At the end of the story, Godsends the angel Death, who takes Abraham's soul bytrickery.

    The text exists in a long (Recension A) andshort (Recension B) form. The original Jewish textwas probably written in a semitizing Greek inEgypt ca. 100 C.E.

    Bibliography. E. P. Sanders, "Testament ofAbraham," OTP 1:871-902.

Paul S. Ash

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